In previous lectures of The Religious Landscape of Pre-Islamic Arabia, we analyzed the presence of J

In previous lectures of The Religious Landscape of Pre-Islamic Arabia, we analyzed the presence of Judaism and Christianity, drawing primarily on epigraphic evidence, pre-Islamic Arabic poetry, and early literary fragments.Building on that foundation, we now turn to the non-Jewish and non-Christian populations of Arabia, commonly categorized as polytheists, idolaters, or Gentiles. Our discussion also encompasses indigenous monotheistic currents, such as the Ḥanīfs highlighted in the Qur'anic text.Methodologically, we will continue grounding our inquiry in epigraphy and pre-Islamic poetry, while incorporating the Qur'an as a central primary source. Although we omitted the Qur'an from earlier discussions to maintain a tighter focus, it offers vital contemporary testimony regarding polytheistic doctrines and practices. To complement these primary records, we will evaluate secondary literary materials—including historical chronicles, sīrah, and ḥadīth literature—while addressing the historiographical challenges they present. Throughout this discussion, we will have an eye on the ongoing scholarly debate surrounding late pre-Islamic Arabian religion. Specifically, we will examine the tension between modern critical models—pioneered by some western scholars who argue for an overarching monotheistic environment based on their reading of the primary sources—and traditional Islamic literary accounts that depict a landscape of rampant polytheism. Ultimately, we will explore whether this scholarly tension can be resolved.